Edited by Azizi Powell
This pancocojams post presents excerpts from an April 1997 dissertation by Sibusiso Emmanuel Pewa. That dissertation is entitled "Song, Dance And Worship In The Zionist Christian Churches: An Ethnomusicological Study Of African Music and Religion". It was submitted to the Faculty of Arts of the University of Zululand in partial
fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters Of Music.
The complete text of that dissertation is available online, and pancocojams visitors are encouraged to read it in its entirety. However, this post focuses on excerpts of that dissertation that provide information about dance in South Africa's Zionist churches.
Click https://pancocojams.blogspot.com/2024/03/dance-in-south-africas-zionist_12.html for a closely related pancocojams post entitled "Dance In South Africa's Zionist Christian Churches & How That Dance May Have Influenced South African School Assembly Singing". That post showcases two YouTube videos of South African Zionist church singing and dancing and two videos of South African secondary school morning assemblies singing and dancing. The Addendum to this post showcases two videos of the toyi toyi protest dance/march as SibusisoEmmanuel Pewa's 1997 dissertation of South African Zionist Christian churches indicates that youth in that church have incorporated toyi toyi into their religious dance. dissertation.
The content of this post is presented for historical, socio-cultural, and educational purposes.
All copyrights remain with their owners.
Thanks to Sibusiso Emmanuel Pewa for his research and writing. Thanks to all those who are quoted in this post and thanks to all those who were responsible for publishing this dissertation online.
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PANCOCOJAMS EDITORS NOTE AND DISCLAIMER
I'm an African American who has never visited Africa and who has no knowledge of South African Zionist churches beyond what I've read online and beyond watching YouTube videos of those church services and/or singers from those churches. I was motivated to do some online research about South African Zionist Christian churches because it occurred to me that the dancing that accompanies some of the singing in YouTube videos of those South African Zionist churches seemed to me to be similar to the dancing that I saw being performed in videos of South African students singing religious songs during their schools' morning assemblies. I'm particularly referring to the videos of morning assemblies at the school in Motherwell, Eastern Cape, South Africa.
This pancocojams post provides excerpts from Sibusiso Emmanuel Pewa's April 1997 dissertation that provide some information about the South African Zionist Christian churches with a focus on the role of dancing in South African Zionist Christian churches. I purposely didn't include any references to Zionist walking around in circles during the healing parts of their church services which this dissertation quotes someone (not derogatorily) referring to as to the "Merry-go-round".
I came across that online publication of this April 2017 university dissertation that is excerpted in this pancocojams post as part of my efforts to find out more information about South African Zionist dancing and to find out more information about the dance movements that the Motherwell school students do while they sing during their morning assemblies.
This pancocojams post was made without any contact with or approval of Sibusiso Emmanuel Pewa. I invite him to contact me if he has any concerns or problems with this post.
I encourage pancocojams readers to read the entire dissertation as an introduction to or for additional information about and deeper understanding of traditional South African religious believes and South Africa's Zionist churches.
These excerpts are presented without any online explanations and without any comments from me. I hope that my choices of excerpts conveys Sibusiso Emmanuel Pewa's overall writing and conclusions about dance in South Africa's Zionist Christian churches.
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DISSERTATION EXCERPT
[These excerpts are given "as is" including with typographical errors or misspelled words. The numbers given in this dissertations are page numbers.]
https://uzspace.unizulu.ac.za/server/api/core/bitstreams/58df51d6-83ec-49ff-b99a-f7b26879929f/content
"SONG, DANCE AND WORSHIP IN THE ZIONIST CHRISTIAN
CHURCHES: AN ETHNOMUSICOLOGICAL STUDY OF AFRICAN
MUSIC AND RELIGION
A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Arts in partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the degree
of
MASTER OF MUSIC
in the
DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC
UNIVERSITY OF ZULULAND
KWA DLANGEZWA
by
SIBUSISO EMMANUEL PEWA
[...]
APRIL 1997
"Introduction
1.1.1
Statement of the problem to be investigated
The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship
between music and worship in contemporary African society. Since there are
various forms of activities that constitute the African society, the
study will focus on the Zionists' Church music-and worship from an ethnomusicological point of view.
According to Merriam (1982), there are misconceptions
regarding African music in general, One of them is that African music is
old and that it represents what Western music must have been like,
ten thousand years ago.
Zionist Church music and dance are vulnerable to such
misconceptions simply because the Zionists practice syncretic religion
which is a fusion of Christianity and traditional African beliefs.
Oosthuizen
2
(I968) says that the Zionist movement is neither Christian
nor traditional, but a syncretism of both,and thus a new
religion.
Furthermore, Zionists churches have their unique tradition
which is rooted in African traditional religion. In trying to search
for African identity and culture, the Zionists as well as other African
Christian churches, have begun to explore the resources of indigenous
music and dance. The Africanisation of the western hymn by the Zionist Churches is one of the ways in which indigenization is
practised. For example, the rhythm of the western hymn does not evoke
dancing feelings. However, clapping and drumming in the African ways change the hymn into something worth dancing to.
Dancing and singing together is a symbol of unity and
solidarity and That is how the Zionists use dancing to fight the evil.
Larlham (1985) supports this view when he looks at the functions of dance in the African society of which the Zionists are part. He says that
dance and song play a major role when group solidarity and harmony are
most necessary. From the Zionists point of view, if a song is not
danced to, it creates a feeling of emptiness which does not lead to the
envisaged
3
climax. The climax is the point where some worshippers begin
to speak in tongues which is the attainment of the Holy Spirit
called urnova.
The arrival of the spirits means that the one who is
possessed can start with the healing ritual...
7
[…]
As it has been mentioned earlier on, misconceptions about
people's faith are inevitable because European Christians perceive
God in a different way from their contemporary Aftican Christians,
especially
8
the eastern tribes known collectively as Nzuni. This is why
it is important to take care of bias when investigating music and
worship of the Zionists Churches. Its syncretic nature can be
misinterpreted if prejudices and general assumptions are not taken care of.Something interesting about the evangelization of South
African converts is that on one hand there are some converts who
abstained completely from African traditional beliefs, religion and
practices in favour of Christian faith. On the other hand there are some
converts who accepted Christian faith but retained and adhered to
their African traditional beliefs and customs. The Zionists Churches fall
under the latter category.
[…]
1.1.2 Definition of the topic
Song
According to the then Grove (1980), Dictionary of Music and Musicians, a song is defined as "a piece of music for
voice or voices, whether accompanied or unaccompanied, or the act or art of singing". Songs may be either religious or secular and this study
focuses mainly on the religious types of songs.
Dance
A dance is an expression of one's feelings through body
movements if music is played or sung. Dance can also be-performed in
religious and
11
secular contexts.
Accordingto Kurath as cited by Shelemay (1990) dance
ethnology, which is science of dance, deals with a variety of Kinetic
activities, many of them expressive, rhythmical and aesthetically
pleasing.
In support of the religious context, Apel (1970) has this
comment: "In prehistoric times as well as in many primitive cultures
(Africa), dance was primarily ritualistic, often containing erotic symbolism
and serving to invoke magic, propitiate gods, induce hypnosis and fear,
or heal illness.
Apel's opinion concurs with the manner in which dancing is
performed For invocation of spirits and for healing in the Zionists
church services.
[...]
14
In actual fact, the Zionists are members of a religious
movement that practices both christian and traditional African religions.
African religion involves traditional ancestral beliefs, customs and
ritualism.
Contrary to their contemporary christian mission churches,
the Zionists' fundamental faith is exercised through water
inunersion, spiritual trance, attainment of the Holy Spirit (UMoya),
prophecy, divine healing and speaking in tongues.
[...]
25
Symbolism plays a major role in African religion in general
and in Zionist churches. A man carries an isikhali whenever he
leaves his homestead. An isikhali can be isaeila or induku. The staves
that are carried by Zionists are not meant for fighting but they
protect them against evil, Kiernan (1979). Some staves are cut from
umhlanga reed and the reed symbolises the idea that man emerged from the
bed of reed. According to Callaway (1970) umhlanga is more
correctly rendered as "a bed of reeds", i.e. a bundle or
collectively rather than a single reed. The bundle of reeds symbolises unity.
The bundle is tied together- using a piece of cloth with
symbolic colours. These colours can be either green, blue or yellow.
Shoes are taken off at the Zionist places of worship on the
basis of Exodus 3:5, Oosthuizen (1979).
In Zionists church music making gets a lion's share compared
to preaching and praying. Music is regarded as a very strong communicative medium. It is not surprising because music
plays a
26
very important role in the daily life of an African, Wernan
(1960). This degree of importance is also supported by Nketia (1982)
when he asserts that in traditional African societies, music making
is generally organised as a social event. In other words, music has that
binding force which unites people. This is one of the factors that
makes Zionists singing to be unique compared to other contemporary denominations. They rely more on singing, clapping and
dancing.
Fast dancing is so important because it facilitates the
state of trance and the act of speaking in tongues, Oosthuizen (1979).
The hymn is not rendered in baroque musical style but it is
indigenised so that it conforms to African form of worship. In Southern
Africa, the baroque hymn per se, is perpetuated by the notion that it
represents proper Christian singing, Mthethwa (1986). In baroque style
the top voice, that is soprano, carries the melody or tune. This is
not always the case with Zionist Church music. A hymn can be
transformed into an ihubo song in terms oftempo, rhythm, texture and harmony.
This transformation portrays a Zionist sound structure.
[…]
28
[…]
In Zionists church services in particular the service as a
whole is characterised-by stylised speech, dancing and singing which
is not peculiar to the first language speaker. The syncretic
character of the service show some elements of a traditional African ritual.
[…]
32
[...]
It was noted that the worshippers were excited when the
present researcher joined in dancing as part of active
participation. This phenomena created a lively atmosphere in the church and it
made them feel that their traditional Zulu values were recognised by
the people .
33
whom they (Zionists) call izifundiswa (the learned ones).
This is theway of gaining the confidence of the informants, especially
in the project of this nature. As a result it becomes fairly
quicker to be accepted by the worshippers and enjoy the inside status.
[...]
38
This study will also focus on some aspects of Zulu culture
which have been retained by the Zionists whilst following the Christian
faith.
These aspects include traditional beliefs and customs. For
example, the traditional Zulu males carry sticks for fighting and
protection against sudden attacks by strangers and perhaps wild
animals. On the other hand Zionists carry sticks within the church context
to combat evil. However, since this study is approached from the ethnomusicological perspective, many issues will be
discussed in relation to music and culture.
[...]
48
[…]
From the Zionist's thought pattern, illness of any kind is
attributed to evil agents like sorcery and demons. As a result uMQya is
used as a weapon to fight such attacks. The invitation of uMoya to
descend upon the people is done through vigorous dancing and
drumming.
[…]
51
CHAPTER TWO
52
[…]
David Coplan [1991:35] says:
"As the material and social conditions under which traditional music genres or styles arose and crystallised change, so of course must this music and its meaning change for its creators.
Coplan's assertion concerning changes in music genres is
true. For example, when church visits were done between 1995 and
1996, the present writer observed with great interest that certain
genres of traditional Zulu dances were highly appreciated during
church services. These were performed by experienced dancers as
an extension of traditional religion within the church
context. The underlying ideas showed that they danced for and with the
ancestors in the same manner as they would do in a traditional
social setting.
Something very interesting was that young boys and maidens with no practical experience in traditional Zulu dance, were
improvising. Their
53
dancing would at times be replaced by toyitoyi rhythmic
complexities. Nobody queried those modem innovations. As a result, it
came to the writer's mind that those young worshippers were born
during the tovitoyi era in South African political world. This is
how those young people have experienced rhythmic patterns in the human
world in which they grew up.
The church has now become a "social institution" where religious, secular and political practices can blend to allow for
freedom of musical expression for young people. Such phenomenon
results into responses such as modernization and westernization.
However, such changes in tradition do not mean complete extinction of fundamental traits.
[…]
81
CHAPTER THREE
3. Zionist Church Music and Dance at Esikhawini' A
socio-cultural context
One of the outstanding features of Zionist worship is
music-making. The basic idea is that music is used as a tool for
communication between the living and the ancestors as well as Supreme
Powers.
Music and vigorous dances are usd as a medium for
acquisition of umoya in order to be transformed into trance state and
perform healing rituals. This is what makes music to be integral part of
Zionist workship. Singing unites people and it soothes the innermost
feelings of the people.
The idea of soothing can be attributed to the amakhorasi
style of singing.
[...]
Amakhorasi are related to hymns but they tend to move away
in terms of performance practice. They are indigenized in terms of
melody, texture and rhythm.
Amakhorasi are also sung in mainline churches. They are
usually sung just before the beginning of the service. They are mostly
regarded as song styles that belong to young boys and girls. The idea
of bringing amakhorasi to the church service does not happen
accidentally. - Children learn these songs during the Sunday School
services.
Compared to hymns that are sung in a more formal way,
amakhorasi put the Zionist congregation in power by moving the
emotions and feelings through dancing and drumming.
The present 'writer has observed that amakhorasi seem to be appreciated by the youth of the churches that have been
visited. The rhythm relate to their cosio-cultural experiences. Compared
to the other song styles like amahubQ, the ideas are far-fetched
with regard to their philosophy of life. Amahubo songs form musical and
social material for older and experienced people who want to
maintain their African identity. This makes Zionist singing to be
syncretic.
[…]
In traditional Zulu societies the ritual stages of the rite of passage like
birth, puberty, marriage and death, are marked by performance of amahubQ
songs. It is these religious ideas that are adapted to form a
link with Christian beliefs.
In any traditional function the leading melody of an ihubo
song is
91
carried out by the leader. The leader is usually the
elderly person of the family or the clan, Theidea is that an elderly person
has the power to communicate with the ancestors and even the Supreme God.
The purity of the voice and other aspects of musicality are not
a priority in leading ihubo. What is important is religious ideas that
shape up the lives and actions of the people. Unlike an ikhorasi, ihubo
cannot be started by any person. If that can happen by mistake, people
will not respond as expected. It is an elderly person who knows the
song repertoire that is relevant to that particular occasion.
The present writer has also observed that in three churches that
have been visited for this project, it is only the leaders who
carry hymn books. In fact they do not have their own church hymn books
but they use hymn books of their contemporary mainline churches.
These arepublished by the American Board, the Methodist, the Anglican
and the Lutheran Churches, (Sundkler, 1961). Common hymn books are "Icilongo Levangeli" and "Amagama
Okuhlabelela". The shortage of hymn books does not in any way affect the rendition of the
hymn because the leader always lead the verse by intoning the
first two or
92
three syllables of each line. It is also not easy to forget
the text because each priest, or umsburnave!i or umvangeli has a set
of two or three hymns he likes most. Once he starts it the
congregation is sure of wbat to say.
The presence oft he youth makes it easier to master the
tunes because the very same hymns are sung in school morning and
sometimes afternoon assemblies.
93
3.1 The Missionarv Influences on African Musical Culture
In order to understand the music of the Zionist Churches it
is better to investigate the effects of musical syncretism between
Western and African music in general. These two musical traditions have
the same musical elements like melody, harmony, rhythm and tonality.
However, the manner in which these elements are executed
differs between the two traditions. For example, African Music puts
more emphasis on rhythm whereas Western Music stresses more on harmony.
The Baroque hynm that has been adopted by the Zionist
Churches does not reflect the true religious ideas as perceived by
the worshippers. Religious ideas in this context include both
ancestor worship and Christian worship. The hymns were designed for a specific religion which is Christian worship.
To show powers of resistance against complete musical change,
the Baroque hymn was taken away from the church and secularised.
The
94
process of secnlarisation affected the basic musical
elements of the hymn, like melody, harmony, rhythm and texture. The manner
of rendering amakhorasi is a good example of secularisation
process among Zionist churches. According to missionary ideals, body movements and dancing in the church would have been
prohibited.
The folk music elements that are found in amakhorasi have
fused with the hymn structure to produce new musical style that is
equated with music syncretism.
[…]
95
[…]
The idea of Divinity had long been perceived by Africans,
prior to the arrival of the missionaries. People had an idea that
uMvelinqangi was the source of life of hurnan beings, animals and all things.
So, this idea of Divinity in the lives of people made easy for the
missionaries to work within the people. Therefore, the Biblical text was
imposed on people who had their m\TI religious practices.
96
3.2 Zionist Singing and Dancing
As the present writer has watched the Zionists on their ways
to various churches on Sundays, he has come to conclusion that
singing is a prominent feature in Zionism. Those who foot it to
church do not walk: leisurely, but they usually keep to a steady and strict
rhythm. In case where they carry a drum or two, drumming is subdued
until they arrive at the church. If they are ferried in a kombi or a
bakkie then they feel much more free to sing louder.
That freedom of singing and drumming whilst they are still on
the way to church is attributed to various factors. One of the
informant said that singing and dancing puts them in the congregation mood
before they even arrive at the church. It is during this time that
they somehow invite uMova to be with them. UMova may even discourage a
person not to go to church if it does not avail itself to him. It
is a very common thing in Zionist Churches for people to voice out and
say ."uMoya awuvumi", (the spirit does not allow me to
do this and that).
97
This view probably best describes the purpose and effect of
uMoya not only in music-making and worship, but in life in
general.
Like in traditional Zulu life, a Zionist drum can also be
used to assemble people at the beginning ofthe service. After having
heard the sound of the drum, worshippers take off their shoes and
enter the church. This marks the beginning. Like in mainstream
churches, the service usually starts with a hymn.
[…]
104
… According to Zionists, the act of worship must not only focus on the soul but also on the body. Even the
trance state and speaking in tongues cannot be attained without singing
and dancing.
Although speaking in tongues is a gift of God (Cor 14:1-5) it must be encouraged through dancing.
According to Weman (1960), the dance is an expression of the
fact that both body and soul form .an integral part of one's
personality.
Action, movement, thinking and prayer can all be
expressed through dance performance
Music and related movements are connected with African
customs and practices. As a universal human activity, music and dance
accompany many activities such as working, playing and worshipping.
[...]
109
[…]
Mthethwa's view on the issue of one's musicianship with
regard to religious dances is undisputable. He says:
"The question of musicality of an individual plays little role because in this part of Africa the common belief is that if you can talk, you can sing; and if you 'can walk, you can also dance." [Mthethwa: 1986]
Nobody forces people to dance, but it happens spontaneously.
The prophet himself cannot ask you to participate if it does not
come from
110
within.
The effect is syncopations is one of the ingredients that
hypnotises those involved. Such ingredients cause people to forget
every forms of hardships they have and anticipate the descent of
"uMoya Oyingcwele" (Holy Spirit).
Like the question of major and minor harmonic progressions
in traditional Zulu folk music, triple time seem to be rare in
Zionist music. If the hymn happens to be in triple time according to
Baroque hymn standards, that effect is unconsciously ignored. It is
ignored because as soon as the Zionist effect Zionist rhythmic and
textural structures, the hymn ceases to be in triple meter. The call
and response alone changes the rhythmic pattern. In fact,
counting in units of say 2, 4, 8 and 16 is a natural hymn phenomenon because
even walking steps follow these rhythmic patterns.
In Zulu folk music in general, rhythm is not determined by
metric beat,
111 .
but it is determined by the free speech in dictating the
words.
Therefore the rhythm will conform to the free speech
patterns. The call-and-response adds to this fusion of speech patterns and
regular pulse to produce polyrhythms. According to Mthethwa (1986),
in African music generally speaking, the actual rhythm begins
to exist at poly-rhythmic level of the song rendition. This is how
Africans, especially Zulus, perceive rhythm.
As a product of African folk music idiom, Zionist music and
dance rhythms operate within the same musical practices.
Finally, the writer of this thesis is convinced that every
aspect of Zionist worship is accompanied by music and dance. Dance is used as a symbol of relief and happiness especially during
ritual practices. The general behaviour of the participants can be
depicted by the type of music and dance they produce. Unlike the
music of some of their contemporary socio-religious groups like
Isicathamiya and mbaqanga, Zionist singing is closely related social
problems they experienced almost day by day. The musical themes based on
112
political issues and urbanisation are not
considered to be a priority.
[…]
123
[…]
Like in mainline churches, amakhorasi seem to appeal to
the young members of the church, that is, the youth. Their manner
of performance, especially the antiphonal textures encourage
the use of
124
bodily movements like clapping, swinging and to a certain
extent toytoying.
Toytoying has been gradually integrated into religious
dances as long as it is performed within the church context. This
is one of the major dances that is common in imvuselelo services.
It is one of the factors that have attracted the youth to church
activities.
[…]
125
Had it not been for the socially accepted behaviour among
the Zulus especially, that is, the concept of virility, this song could
have been easily started by the female voices. It is a common practice
for the males to take a lead in many social and religious
activities.
[…]
129
The emergence of independent churches in South of which the
Zionist church is one, was a blessing to both the African traditional
musical heritage and African traditional religion. Some of these traditional
practices were at the verge of extinction had it not been for the Zionist power
of resistance and transformation. The contributions that have been made other
contemporary black controlled churches cannot be overemphasized. Such
attributes go to churches such as Isonto lamaNazaretha (Shembe) and Zionist
Christian Church (ZCC).
Since the Zionists combine traditional African ritual,
belief and organisation together with Christianity, they succeed in addressing the
daily needs of the people concerned. That is why.they attract thousands of
people at the so called grassroots level and a reasonable percentage of the elite
community.
[...]
The future of Zionist music, worship and dance lies with the
youth. Zulu people's old proverb which says "Inkunzi
isematholeni" (translation: for the
130
bull to be what it is, it must grow as a calf first)",
is a good lesson for the youth.
It is the duty of the adults and musical pioneers in general,
to tell the youth that no music genre or type is more superior than the other
as long as the owners ofthe music understand the language and culture. To
be a member of the Zionist group means that a person has a social
function to perform in life.
The youth must be made aware that music and dance forms a
social cohesion between people who live together and call themselves a
community.
Therefore the inclusion of dance. and drumming in religious
services makes the service vibrant and interesting.
One of the reasons why the youth seem to be reluctant to
attend church services. is that almost everything is bestowed upon the
adults as the-only people who have a potential.
The present writer was impressed by the activities of the
First Apostolic
131
Church in Zion South Africa. They give a chance to read
scriptures, testify and sing their own songs before the sermon is given by
whoever is presiding on that day. This encourages them to bring their respective
schools' song repertoire to the church so that the church becomes a
meaningful institution.
Therefore, Afiicanisation and indigenization of Zionist
Church music and worship can attract the etlmomusicologists if the insiders
of the culture concerned find it meaningful for themselves and the
generations to come.
- If the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) of the
new South African dispensation can also address the long pre-conceived
ideas and practical needs of various independent church denominations,
the Zionist churches can expand more than they are at the present
moment. Zionist church music, dance and worship represents the realization
of the totality of the human being and should result in more positive
self-esteem and human quality to those involved".
****
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