Edited by Azizi Powell
This pancocojams post presents an excerpt of an online article about categories of race and ethnicity on the United States Census from 1790 to 2010.
This post also presents an excerpt from a full reprint from the United States Office Of The Census entitled "About the Topic of Race".
The Addendum to this post presents an excerpt about people from the Middle East and North Africa still being considered White in the 2020 United States Census.
The content of this post is presented for historical and educational purposes.
All copyrights remain with their owners.
Thanks to all those who are quoted in this post.
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ARTICLE EXCERPT - A (Short) History Of The Race Question On The Decennial Census
https://www.communitysolutions.com/short-history-race-question-decennial-census/
by Joseph Ahernin Blog, Datatags Census, March 30, 2020
"One of the most widely discussed topics on the decennial census
are the questions on race, Hispanic origin and ancestry. This conversation is
not new for 2020. In fact, the way that we classify people by race and
ethnicity has changed frequently since the first census in 1790. The 2020
census questionnaire asks people to self-identify with one or more of the
following racial categories:
White
Black or African American
American Indian or Alaska Native
Chinese, Filipino, Asian Indian, Vietnamese, Korean,
Japanese or other Asian
Native Hawaiian, Samoan, Chamorro or other Pacific Islander
Some other race
[…]
n addition to checking off the applicable race
category(ies), people are also asked in an open-ended question to fill in their
ancestry, origin or native tribe. ...
Separately from race, the Hispanic origin question lists the following categories:
No, not Hispanic, Latino or Spanish origin
Yes, Mexican, Mexican American or Chicano
Yes, Puerto Rican
Yes, Cuban
Yes, another Hispanic, Latino or Spanish origin
In the 230 years from 1790 through the present, the race questions have undergone extensive changes from one census to the next. Major changes resulted from immigration, emancipation and changing attitudes toward inclusiveness and race. It is important to note that self-identification has been in effect only since the first mail-out census in 1960; from 1790 to 1950, racial designation was determined by the observations of census-takers.
Changes in the racial categories used in the decennial census from 1790 to the present, are summarized below. From this account, it is clear that many factors have been at play, such as immigration (for the Asian groups), changes in legal status (emancipation of African American slaves and the counting of Native Americans), and the growing self-awareness of the Hispanic/Latino population.
The most striking feature of these classifications, however, lies in the development of different ways of counting African Americans. Although the ‘one-drop’ rule – an outdated classification that asserted anyone with one ancestor from sub-Saharan Africa was considered Black – was only codified in the 1930 census, it reflected implicit customs and practices from the post-emancipation times of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The intent of these categories seems to have been to draw a distinction between multiracial people of both Black and white background and “pure” whites. (Now that people can self-identify as multiple races, the ‘one-drop’ rule no longer applies.) In the context of Jim Crow and other legal segregation practices, it can be seen that the stain of racial discrimination was present even in a neutral and “scientific” enterprise such as the U.S. Census. It is worth reflecting on as we struggle to overcome the legacy of racism.
1790, 1800, 1810: The first three censuses had three race categories: “free whites,” “all other free persons” and “slaves.”
1820, 1830, 1840: These censuses added the category of “free colored persons” to the three original ones.
1850: As a result of increased interest in theories of racial hierarchy, “mulatto” (half-Black) was added as a category to both free and slave populations. Increased immigration, largely from Ireland, led to the introduction of a question about place of birth.
1860: For the first time, Native Americans (then called “Indians”) were counted, but only those who were taxed, indicating that they lived apart from their tribes. The growing Chinese population was also counted, but only in California.
1870 and 1880: In the first Census after the Emancipation Proclamation in 1870, the racial categories were “white,” “Black,” “mulatto,” “Indian” and “Chinese” (applied nationwide). As second-generation immigrants were born in this country, place of birth” was replaced by “parental place of birth” to track immigration. The categories were the same in the 1880 census.
1890: The 1890 census saw more changes to racial categories. In addition to Chinese, Japanese was added to reflect immigration from that country, and all Native Americans were counted, not just those living away from their tribes. Reflecting interest in quantifying mixed-race people, the categories of “quadroon” (one-fourth Black) and “octoroon” (one-eighth Black) were used, in addition to mulatto.
1900: The categories mulatto, quadroon and octoroon were dropped, replaced by “Black (Negro or Negro descent).” The other categories of white, Indian, Chinese and Japanese remained as they were in 1890.
1910: “Mulatto” was restored as a category, and a slight change was made to “Black (Negro).” For the first time a category of “other race” was used, which predominantly included Koreans, Filipinos and “Hindus” (as Asian Indians were then designated).
1920: “Korean,” “Filipino” and “Hindu” were made into their own categories. “Black (Negro)” and mulatto remained as in 1910, as did White, Indian, Chinese, Japanese and “other.”
1930: The 1930 census was notable for formalizing hypodescent, or the “one-drop” rule, through instructions to census-takers. The mulatto category was dropped, but anyone with any perceptible trace of “black blood” was designated as Negro. More generally, any mixture of white and non-white should be reported according to the non-white parent. In addition, “Mexican” was introduced as a racial category; previous censuses categorized “Mexicans” as white.
1940: Except for the “Mexican” category being dropped and “Mexicans” re-designated as white, the racial categories remained the same as in 1930: white, Negro, Indian, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Filipino, Hindu and other.
1950: The Korean and Hindu categories were dropped as separate races, and “Indian” was changed to “American Indian” to distinguish them from Asian Indians.
1960: The admission of Alaska and Hawaii as states introduced new racial categories: “Eskimo,” “Aleut,” “Hawaiian” and “part-Hawaiian.” This was also the first census to let people identify their own racial category, rather than have it determined by the observation of census-takers.
1970: The census introduced a question on Hispanic background separate from the race question. The categories were “Mexican,” “Puerto Rican,” “Cuban,” “Central or South American” and “other Spanish-speaking countries.” The race categories were white, Negro or Black, Indian (Amer.), Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, Korean, Hawaiian and other.
1980: After being absent from the 1970 Census (when they were grouped with American Indian), the Eskimo and Aleut categories returned. “Vietnamese” and “Asian Indian” were introduced, as well as “Guamanian” and “Samoan.” The Hispanic categories were changed slightly to “Mexican, Mexican-Amer, Chicano,” “Puerto Rican,” “Cuban” and “other Spanish/ Hispanic.” In addition, a new open-ended question was added to allow people to list their ancestry or nationality.
1990: The category “other Asian/ Pacific Islander” was added.
2000 and 2010: For the first time, the 2000 census allowed people to specify more than one race. The categories were “white,” ‘Black, African American, or Negro;” “American Indian or Alaska Native,” “Chinese,” “Japanese” “Korean,” “Filipino,” “Vietnamese,” “Asian Indian,” “other Asian,” “Native Hawaiian,” “Guamanian or Chamorro,” “Samoan,” “other Pacific Islander” and “some other race.” The Hispanic/ Latino categories were unchanged in 2000 from what they were in 1980 and 1990. Both the racial and Hispanic categories were unchanged from 2000 to 2010.
Source: Karen Humes and Howard Hogan. “Measurement of Race
and Ethnicity in a Changing, Multicultural America.” Race and Social Problems
(2009) 1:111-131."
-snip-
The bold font was originally used in this article.
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FULL REPRINT - About the Topic of Race
US Census, Retrieved, January 1, 2023
https://www.census.gov/topics/population/race/about.html
"The U.S. Census Bureau must adhere to the 1997 Office
of Management and Budget (OMB) standards on race and ethnicity which guide the
Census Bureau in classifying written responses to the race question:
White – A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa.
Black or African American – A person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa.
American Indian or Alaska Native – A person having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America (including Central America) and who maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment.
Asian – A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent including, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander – A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands.
The 1997 OMB standards permit the reporting of more than one race. An individual’s response to the race question is based upon self-identification.
An individual’s response to the race question is based upon self-identification. The Census Bureau does not tell individuals which boxes to mark or what heritage to write in. For the first time in Census 2000, individuals were presented with the option to self-identify with more than one race and this continued with the 2010 Census. People who identify with more than one race may choose to provide multiple races in response to the race question. For example, if a respondent identifies as "Asian" and "White," they may respond to the question on race by checking the appropriate boxes that describe their racial identities and/or writing in these identities on the spaces provided.
What is Race?
The data on race were derived from answers to the question
on race that was asked of individuals in the United States. The Census Bureau
collects racial data in accordance with guidelines provided by the U.S. Office
of Management and Budget (OMB), and these data are based on
self-identification.
The racial categories included in the census questionnaire generally reflect a social definition of race recognized in this country and not an attempt to define race biologically, anthropologically, or genetically. In addition, it is recognized that the categories of the race item include racial and national origin or sociocultural groups. People may choose to report more than one race to indicate their racial mixture, such as “American Indian” and “White.” People who identify their origin as Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish may be of any race.
OMB requires five minimum categories: White, Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander.
Reasons for Collecting Information on Race
Information on race is required for many Federal programs
and is critical in making policy decisions, particularly for civil rights.
States use these data to meet legislative redistricting principles. Race data
also are used to promote equal employment opportunities and to assess racial
disparities in health and environmental risks.
Race and Ethnicity Research
The Census Bureau has a long history of conducting research
to improve questions and data on race and ethnicity. Since the 1970s, the
Census Bureau has conducted content tests to research and improve the design
and function of different questions, including questions on race and ethnicity.
For the latest information on Race and Ethnicity Research
visit: https://www.census.gov/about/our-research/race-ethnicity.html ."
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ADDENDUM -The U.S. census sees Middle Eastern and North African people as white. Many don't
https://www.npr.org/2022/02/17/1079181478/us-census-middle-eastern-white-north-african-mena
There's a reality about race in the U.S. that has confounded many people of Middle Eastern or North African descent.
The federal government officially categorizes people with origins in Lebanon, Iran, Egypt and other countries in the MENA region as white.
But that racial identity has not matched the discrimination in housing, at work and through other parts of daily life that many say they have faced.
Younger people of MENA descent have "had a plethora of different experiences that made them feel that some of their experiences were actually closer to communities of color in the U.S.," says Neda Maghbouleh, an associate professor of sociology at the University of Toronto, who has conducted research on the topic.
The paradox has been hard to show through data.
But a newly released study co-authored by Maghbouleh offers suggestive evidence that a majority of people with MENA origins do not see themselves as white. Meanwhile, a substantial percentage of white people who do not identify as as white. Meanwhile, a substantial percentage of white people who do not identify as MENA or Latino do not perceive MENA people as white either, the study also suggests.
The findings match the lived realities of many people of MENA descent
Presented with a "Middle Eastern or North African"
category, 88% of people of MENA descent in the study (who could select one or
more categories) chose that option when identifying their race, ethnicity or
origin. The results also show that adding "Middle Eastern or North African"
to a list of response options dramatically lowered the share of people with
MENA origins self-identifying with only the "White" category.
[…]
Researchers are hamstrung by the federal standards that
require the Census Bureau to include people with MENA roots in data about white
people. With no separate "Middle Eastern or North African" checkbox
on the U.S. census forms, there is no direct way of producing a national count
of people of MENA descent in the United States.
"It makes it very difficult to identify Middle Eastern and North African individuals or those of Arab ancestry when there's been decades of conditioning and socializing to say, 'When you fill out the form, you're supposed to check white,' " says Ajrouch, who is currently trying to study how prevalent Alzheimer's disease and other dementias are among older Arab Americans.
In effect, many people of MENA descent in the U.S. are rendered invisible in official statistics that researchers rely on for health research and other key studies.
The history of whiteness and people of MENA descent is
complicated
The complicated relationship many people with MENA origins
have with whiteness is entangled with a naturalization system in the U.S. that,
until 1952, imposed racial restrictions on which immigrants could become
citizens.
First arriving in large numbers in the late 1800s, the earliest generations of immigrants from the Middle East and North Africa saw whiteness as the path towards claiming full rights in their new country.
There were several court cases where Syrian immigrants
emphasized their Christianity because it was considered a European religion
and, therefore, a marker of whiteness, says Sahar Aziz, a law professor at
Rutgers University Law School and author of The Racial Muslim: When Racism
Quashes Religious Freedom.
"They argued they were white in court because the only immigrants that could naturalize to become U.S. citizens had to be found white by law," she says.
Anti-Black racism in the media and other parts of U.S. society, Aziz adds, has helped drive many immigrants from around the world to try to "disassociate themselves from Blackness and try to associate as close to whiteness as possible."
In more recent decades, however, there's been a growing
disconnect between the way the federal government officially categorizes people
of MENA descent by race and many people's lived realities – a dissonance that
was underlined after the Sept. 11 attacks."...
-snip-
The bold font was originally used in this article...
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