Al Jazeera English, June 27, 2010
And another YouTube video entitled Cape Town Minstrels, 2001 Documentary 2001 can be found at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8vt7XLzS6XM&ab_channel=PiesangKop
Slaves hailed from different parts of the world. It is maintained that 26.4 percent came from Africa – mostly from Mozambique, West and Central Africa. During the early years of colonisation; 25.9 percent of the slaves came from India – specifically from Bengal, Malabar, Coromandel and Ceylon. A further 22 percent of the slaves came from areas that make up modern-day Indonesia. It’s important to note that during the early period of slavery the Dutch East India Company forbade the enslavement of the aboriginal people; the Khoikhoi pastoralists and Bushmen hunter-gatherers from the Cape and neighbouring regions. This necessitated enslaving people from other parts of Africa. However, later people from the East were captured and enslaved. Many were forced to be labourers and servants to the company and while others became farmers.
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Cape Society
A Creole Culture
Given the fact that the slaves were from different parts of the world, they contributed uniquely to the eclectic society that evolved at the Cape. It was a melting pot of cultures incorporating and blending features of African, Asian and European sub-cultures. This resulted in the formation of a Creole society in Southern Africa, similar to other countries such as West Indies and parts of the Americas. The dominated, enslaved groups where subsequently characterized by an amalgamation of the different aspects of each culture, which has been passed down from one generation to another. This meant that slaves eventually created a culture of their own, completely different to that of their masters. Regardless of it being different, the world of the slaves was consequently never completely cut off from the dominant culture. Instead, it continued to interact with it, resulting in shared-shaping of traditions and practices.
The ‘Creolization’ of Cape Town was particularly evident when people met and interacted with each other. Furthermore, because of the dependence of its harbour, Cape Town eventually became known as the ‘tavern of the seas’. Sailors and colonists who travelled between Holland and Batavia stayed here for several weeks at a time. During their stay-over, they could enjoy boarding houses, restaurants and other places of pleasure. It is also important to note that before abolition of slavery, there were certain residential areas that were mixed. People from different parts of the world lived together and so-called ‘free Blacks’ were allowed to work alongside White people in the same jobs. It is maintained that slaves were well integrated into the social life of the underclasses. In the taverns, canteens and unlicensed bars, free Blacks socialized with sailors and White Capetonians. The ‘Creolization’ of the Cape was thus also influenced by outsiders.
It was against this backdrop that the New Year festival developed, which was also the onset of a street culture in Cape Town. Capetonians were very fond of processions and parades and by the mid-nineteenth century groups would go from bar to bar with burning torches, making music. However, this was not welcomed by everyone. In 1803 a regulation was passed banning private music bands or any other form of musical assembly from playing in the streets after sunset or before sunrise. This subsequently resulted in a lack of organized entertainment in Cape Town during the time of slavery. Permitted musical entertainment was mostly provided by the military, while other types of entertainment were provided by the taverns. Also, the absence of theatres and organised entertainment further fuelled the development of a street culture, since this was the only other space where people could join together to organise informal processions, observe parades and create music.
Celebration of New Year
The celebration of New Year has always been a big event at the Cape, and its Dutch influence is clearly witnessed. During the seventeenth and eighteenth century in the Netherlands, Twelfth Night was the most popular festival. Celebrated on 5 or 6 January, this was the festival of the Magi who allegedly followed a star to the birth-place of Jesus Christ. It is believed that some aspects of this celebration were maintained in the ways in which New Year was celebrated in the southern hemisphere. They include going from house to house providing serenades while accepting certain gifts such as bread and pancakes. Also, those serenading would carry a paper lantern in the shape of a star lit by a candle, called star singers.
This Dutch celebration first included South African slaves in 1674 when the governor at the time, Isbrand Broke, desired the slaves to be part of the celebration on 1 January of that year. They were instructed to refrain from work, and were offered money, clothing and tobacco. Cannons were fired from the Castle of Jan van Riebeeck as well as from the ships that were anchored at Table Bay. Furthermore, farmers from the interior travelled to Cape Town with their slaves to spend time with relatives in the city, and it is maintained that street parades and serenades formed part of the celebration. By the early nineteenth century New Year was the most joyous occasion of the year, particularly for slaves as it afforded them the opportunity to engage in festivities. It therefore comes as no surprise that when slavery was abolished in 1834 and the apprenticeships ended in 1838, it was greeted with much celebration, street processions, music and songs. This celebration formed the foundation on which the subsequent New Year festival of Cape Town would develop.
From Slaves to Coons
Over time slaves managed to establish families and social networks despite the significant control exercised over their lives by the colonial authorities. They especially enjoyed dancing and playing music at picnics and weddings in an attempt to foster social cohesion amongst each other. Apart from a small number of slaves who committed suicide in response to their lives of oppression and dehumanisation, most slaves were resilient and looked to ways that would make their lives more bearable, both physically and spiritually. As a result, slaves enjoyed what liberties they could, whilst innovatively developing strategies and traditions to ensure happier futures for their children. These innovations drew on their memories and aspects of their cultures brought from their countries of origin as well as certain mannerisms which belonged to the non-slave people with whom they had interacted.
According to Winberg (1992:78), one of the earliest references made to an innovation was the so-called ghoemaliedjie (‘ghoema song’). It is attributed to a male slave named “Biron”. He would later be punished for singing ditties “half in Malay and half in Dutch” in the streets of Cape Town, which were deemed dubious. This is because the song would most likely have been a satirical commentary on the mannerisms of their “white masters and madams”. These ghoemaliedjies were always sung at picnics, an event which slave masters were obligated to provide the slaves with. For this reason ghoemalidjies have become known as a Malay picnic song, a straatlied (street song), or a skemliedjie (comic song).
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After emancipation in 1838, freed slaves and their descendants formed dance bands which were in demand across all classes during the nineteenth-century in Cape Town. Even though they mostly played European dance music before and after emancipation, there was some other music played by Coloured musicians. Subsequently there were some Creole repertoires which developed, mixing Eastern musical elements with European elements. At the New Year, slaves were always given a holiday. As one would expect, it was a joyous and much-celebrated occasion. They dressed up in brightly-coloured and eccentric costumes, and also sang and danced. This subsequently became a tradition, which was maintained well after emancipation. Emancipation was henceforth celebrated by street parades which were accompanied by bands.
The Influence of American Minstrelsy
An advertisement in The Cape Chronicle for the appearance of Christy’s Minstrels on 20 August 1862 at the Theatre Royal (Martin, 1999:79).
At the end of the nineteenth century the ways in which New Year was celebrated in Cape Town, especially among coloured people, would be significantly influenced by American ‘blackface’ minstrelsy. American minstrel troupes were initially comprised of white comedians, singers and musicians, and during their performances they would impersonate African American slaves from the south. Using burnt cork, they blackened their faces. They also wore very eccentric clothing such as colourful tailcoats when they impersonated the more stylish societal figures and rags as their impersonations turned to rural slaves. Humorous skits, the singing of “negro” songs as well as playing instruments such as the violin and banjo were considered essential elements of their act. Within this context, participants were referred to as coons, a racist term which referred to the inferiority of the slaves. Despite the negative connotations attached to this term, many troupes today still prefer to use this term, many without knowing what the term means.
It is maintained that the songs from American minstrel shows were sung at the Cape, even before they were staged in the U.S. This involved groups of Malay men, who would walk up and down the streets while singing certain Dutch (and on occasion, American) songs “in perfect harmony.” Soon, certain bands of singers formed “serenaders” such as the Celebrated Ethiopian Serenaders in 1848. In 1860 these serenaders even sung for Prince Albert upon his visit to the Cape; and on 11 March 1861 they were part of the “Grand Entertainment” at the Theatre Royal in Harrington Street. The appearance of Christy’s Minstrels alongside the Celebrated Ethiopian Minstrels revolutionized Cape Town entertainment in August 1862.*
The formation of minstrel socitieies
In the late 1800’s there was an emergence of local minstrel acts in Cape Town, such as the Amateur Darkie Serenaders and the Darkie Minstrels. In 1887 many concerts were held in celebration of Queen Victoria’s Jubilee, with many local minstrel ensembles performing. However, it is important to note that the Cape Town Coon was adapted to fit into the local context. This is evident in the acts of the 1869 performance of the Amateur Coloured Troupe. For example, it included Malingo Hoy, the Cape Town Coolie (which was Dutch-Mozambique lingo) and A jolly place is Cape Town.
The Jubilee Singers, an African American minstrel group was especially influential in shaping the minstrel culture in South Africa. They performed in the country during the 1890’s (Meltzer et. al., 2010:4).
By the 1870’s there were a number of societies, which existed among the Coloured people of the Cape. They included sporting groups and singing societies as well as sports clubs that paraded on New Year’s Eve. It is maintained that the first New Year Carnival troupe was organized in 1887, called the Cape of Good Hope Sports Club. It was also a singing society and on New Year’s Eve members of this klops (club) appeared in black face and minstrel costumes. The march was poorly attended and the help of the police was enlisted to maintain order to escort what essentially became a lantern bearing procession. On New Year in 1888 those who were employed by a baker in Loop Street walked across town to their annual picnic with the accompanied by a band of musicians (Martin, 1999:91). Whilst these may appear to be seemingly insignificant events, it could be seen as some of the first attempts at New Year festival celebrations in Cape Town.
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Change during the 1920’s and 1930’s
While most of the troupes had names inspired by American minstrelsy, such as the Happy Boston Coons, troupes that emerged at this time had more localized names such as the Cape Town Hawkers and the Grand Parade Darkies. At this time the troupes were also small in size and ranged from 30 to 70 members. The uniforms were also given more attention and it was cut to the sizes of the participants and fitted individually. These uniforms were kept secret until New Year’s Eve and it is reported that tailors worked behind locked doors and even blindfolded Coons during their fittings. The uniform was in the official colour of the troupe. It usually consisted of a top hat, a tailcoat, a shirt and a big bow tie, a pair of trousers, socks and shoes. They were accompanied by a stick, which they stomped to the ground as they sang and marched to the beat of the music (Martin, 1999:114).
The Carnival during Apartheid
Even though the carnival had become part of Cape Town tradition at this point, it was not isolated from the ensuing political context, which had a big impact on the festival. After the Group Areas Act was passed implemented in Cape Town in 1951 the areas where the Coons were allowed to compete were now off-limits to them, because they were located in “white areas”. They were instead showed to other venues such as Athlone Stadium in 1971. Not only were the locations changed but the competition itself also became a segregated arena and there were attempts to change the ways in which the carnival was organized as well as the content thereof. Those who participated in the march were of the opinion that Cape Town belonged to them, that they were part of its history and that marching through the streets of Cape Town was how they tried to affirm and maintain their place in the city’s history (Martin, 2000:376).
However, the troupes remained resilient and the festival culture continued to develop, albeit within the overcrowded, dilapidated and poverty stricken area of District Six. This is where many coloured families in Cape Town resided at the time. People socialized in the streets and created forms of expression of their own. More importantly is how the community managed to preserve their love for music. Malay choirs as well as Coons rehearsed and performed in the streets while also influencing the Cape Town Jazz subculture, which developed after World War Two, through the incorporation of the ghoema beat into jazz music (Martin, 1999:135). So while there were attempts at interrupting the development of a culture specific to the coloured people of Cape Town, it continued to develop within the boundaries they were forced and limited to exist in.
Another change that took place after the advent of Apartheid was the costumes worn by troupes. During the 1950’s and 1960’s the costumes became more standardized. This is because more people joined the troupes and a standardized uniform meant that they would save on the cost thereof. They also did away with tailcoats, which were now replaced with smaller jackets and also made use of synthetic material instead of satin or cotton. The music also changed to include more popular music such as Frank Sinatra’s songs. Also, instead of string bands troupes were now accompanied by brass bands (Martin, 1999:136). The carnival also became more commercialized which further influenced the music. Troupes paid professional artists to participate in the carnival. Those who were unable to enlist their services had to look for sponsors, which meant that carnivals now became a business. By 1960 there were five organizing boards whose promoters were intent on making profit from competitions. Coons, captains and performers felt that they were being exploited. In 1961 the captains of 21 troupes decided to form the South African Carnival Board, but they failed to maintain it (Martin, 1999:142).
The growing strain on the Coons from Apartheid and the commercialization of a tradition that was kept alive for many years eventually began to take its toll. It is maintained that by 1968 there were virtually no troupes in Cape Town in January. This is because Green Point was demarcated as a white area and a permit for a multiracial audience to attend the Carnival there had been refused. Troupes were instead taken by bus or lorry areas such as Goodwood (Martin, 1999:150-151). This was a very sad development as the Green Point Track was where the marching traditionally took place. It also meant that some of the most important aspects of the carnivals would be scrapped. This included the marching of the troupes through the streets while singing, dancing and making music which was part of the heritage of the community; the opportunity to watch the coons without having to pay which meant that the festival became inaccessible to the poor; as well as the opportunity to remind South Africa of the contribution of the ancestors of Coloured people to Cape Town culture (Martin, 1999:150-151). Finally, in 1977 Coon marches anywhere in Cape Town were banned only to be allowed back into the city in 1989 (Martin, 2000:376).
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The New Year carnival as we know it today has a long history which dates back to the early years of colonization. Influenced by the American minstrelsy, slaves and former slaves soon established their own form of minstrelsy that has developed into a festival deeply entrenched into the histories of the coloured people of Cape Town to be celebrated for many years to come."...
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*The date that Christy’s Minstrels performed along side the Ethiopian Minstrels was mistakenly given as "1962" in this article.
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